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                    <h2 class="title">Anthropology Syllabus </h2>
                   
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 <h2><strong>UPSC Optional Syllabus for Anthropology- Paper I</strong></h2> 
<p><strong>1.1 Meaning, scope and development of Anthropology.</strong></p><div class="btf" id="target-3"></div>

<p><strong>1.2 Relationships with other disciplines:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Social Sciences,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Behavioural Sciences,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Life Sciences,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Medical Sciences,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Earth Sciences&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Humanities.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.3 Main branches of Anthropology, their scope and relevance:</strong></p><div class="btf" id="target-4"></div> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Social- cultural Anthropology.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Biological Anthropology.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Archaeological Anthropology.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Linguistic Anthropology.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.4 Human Evolution and the emergence of Man:</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Biological and Cultural factors in human evolution.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Theories of Organic Evolution (Pre- Darwinian, Darwinian and Post-Darwinian).</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Synthetic theory of evolution; Brief outline of terms and concepts of evolutionary biology (Doll’s rule, Cope’s rule, Gause’s rule, parallelism, convergence, adaptive radiation, and mosaic evolution).</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.5 Characteristics of Primates;</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Evolutionary Trend and Primate Taxonomy;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Primate Adaptations;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>(Arboreal and Terrestrial) Primate Taxonomy;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Primate Behaviour;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Living Major Primates;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Comparative Anatomy of Man and Apes;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Skeletal changes due to erect posture and its implications.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.6 Phylogenetic status, characteristics and geographical distribution of the following:</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Plio-preleistocene hominids in South and East Africa - Australopith</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Homo erectus: Africa (Paranthropus), Europe (Homo erectus heidelbergensis), Asia (Homo erectus javanicus, Homo erectus pekinensis).</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Neanderthal Man- La-Chapelle-aux-saints (Classical type), Mt. Carmel (Progressive type).</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Rhodesian man.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Homo sapiens — Cromagnon, Grimaldi and Chancelede.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.7 The biological basis of life:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>The Cell, DNA structure and replication,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Protein Synthesis, Gene,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Mutation,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Chromosomes, and Cell Division.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.8</strong></p> 
<ol> 
 <li><span>a) Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. Chronology: Relative and Absolute Dating methods.</span></li> 
 <li><span>b) Cultural Evolution- Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures:</span></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Paleolithic</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Mesolithic</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Neolithic</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Chalcolithic</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Copper-Bronze Age</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Iron Age</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>2.1 The Nature of Culture:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<p><span>The concept and characteristics of culture and civilization;&nbsp;</span></p> 
<p><span>Ethnocentrism vis-à-vis cultural Relativism.</span></p> 
<p><strong>2.2 The Nature of Society:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Concept of Society;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Society and Culture;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Social Institutions;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Social groups;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Social stratification.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>2.3 Marriage:</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Definition and universality;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Laws of marriage (endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, hypogamy, incest taboo);&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Types of marriage (monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, group marriage).&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Functions of marriage;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Marriage regulations (preferential, prescriptive and proscriptive);&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Marriage payments (bride wealth and dowry).</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>2.4 Family:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Definition and universality;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Family, household and domestic groups;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>functions of family;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Types of family (from the perspectives of structure, blood relation, marriage, residence and succession);&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Impact of urbanization, industrialization, and feminist movements on family.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>2.5 Kinship:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Consanguinity and Affinity;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Principles and types of descent (Unilineal, Double, Bilateral, Ambilineal); Forms of descent groups (lineage, clan, phratry, moiety, and kindred);&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Kinship terminology (descriptive and classificatory);&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Descent, Filiation and Complimentary Filiation;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Descent and Alliance.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="3"> 
 <li><strong> Economic organization:</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Meaning, scope and relevance of economic anthropology;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Formalist and Substantivist debate;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Principles governing production, distribution and exchange (reciprocity, redistribution and market), in communities, subsisting on hunting and gathering, fishing, swiddening, pastoralism, horticulture, and agriculture; globalization and indigenous economic systems.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="4"> 
 <li><strong> Political organization and Social Control:</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Band, tribe, chiefdom, kingdom and state;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>concepts of power, authority and legitimacy;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>social control, law, and justice in simple societies</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="5"> 
 <li><strong> Religion:&nbsp;</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Anthropological approaches to the study of religion (evolutionary, psychological and functional); monotheism and polytheism;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>sacred and profane;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>myths and rituals;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>forms of religion in tribal and peasant societies (animism, animatism, fetishism, naturism and totemism);&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>religion, magic and science distinguished;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>magico- religious functionaries (priest, shaman, medicine man, sorcerer and witch).</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="6"> 
 <li><strong> Anthropological theories:</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Classical evolutionism (Tylor, Morgan, and Frazer)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Historical particularism (Boas); Diffusionism (British, German and American)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Functionalism (Malinowski); Structural- functionlism (Radcliffe-Brown)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Structuralism (L’evi – Strauss and E. Leach)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Culture and personality (Benedict, Mead, Linton, Kardiner and Cora – du Bois).</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Neo – evolutionism (Childe, White, Steward, Sahlins and Service)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Cultural materialism (Harris)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Symbolic and interpretive theories (Turner, Schneider and Geertz)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Cognitive theories (Tyler, Conklin)</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Post- modernism in anthropology</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="7"> 
 <li><strong> Culture, language and communication:&nbsp;</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Nature, origin and characteristics of language;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>verbal and non-verbal communication;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>social context of language use.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="8"> 
 <li><strong> Research methods in anthropology:</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Fieldwork tradition in anthropology</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Distinction between technique, method and methodology</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Tools of data collection: observation, interview, schedules, questionnaire, Case study, genealogy, life-history, oral history, secondary sources of information, participatory methods.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.1 Human Genetics</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Methods and Application: Methods for study of genetic principles in man-family study (pedigree analysis, twin study, foster child, co-twin method, cytogenetic method, chromosomal and karyo-type analysis), biochemical methods, immunological methods, D.N.A. technology and recombinant technologies.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.2 Mendelian genetics in man-family</strong><span> </span><strong>study</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>single factor, multifactor, lethal, sub-lethal and polygenic inheritance in man.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.3 Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Mendelian population, Hardy-Weinberg law;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>causes and changes which bring down frequency – mutation, isolation, migration, selection, inbreeding and genetic drift. Consanguineous and non-consanguineous mating, genetic load, genetic effect of consanguineous and cousin marriages.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.4 Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations in man, methodology.</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Numerical and structural aberrations (disorders).</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Sex chromosomal aberrations – Klinefelter (XXY), Turner (XO), Super female (XXX), intersex and other syndromic disorders.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Autosomal aberrations – Down syndrome, Patau, Edward and Cri-du-chat syndromes.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Genetic imprints in human disease, genetic screening, genetic counseling, human DNA profiling, gene mapping and genome study.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.5 Race and racism</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>The biological basis of morphological variation of non-metric and metric characters.&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Racial criteria, racial traits in relation to heredity and environment;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>biological basis of racial classification, racial differentiation and race crossing in man.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.6 a) Age, sex and population variation as genetic marker- </strong><span>ABO, Rh blood groups, HLA Hp, transferring, Gm, blood enzymes.</span></p> 
<ol> 
 <li><strong>b) Physiological characteristics</strong><span>-Hb level, body fat, pulse rate, respiratory functions and sensory perceptions in different cultural and socio-economic groups.</span></li> 
</ol> 
<p><strong>9.7 Concepts and methods of Ecological Anthropology</strong><span>.&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Bio-cultural Adaptations&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Genetic and Non- genetic factors.&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Man’s physiological responses to environmental stresses:&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>hot desert,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>cold, high altitude climate.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.8 Epidemiological Anthropology:</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Health and disease.&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Infectious and non-infectious diseases.&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Nutritional deficiency-related diseases.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="10"> 
 <li><strong> Concept of human growth and development:</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>stages of growth – pre-natal, natal, infant, childhood, adolescence, maturity, senescence.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Factors affecting growth and development genetic, environmental, biochemical, nutritional, cultural and socio-economic.</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Ageing and senescence. Theories and observations – biological and chronological longevity. Human physique and somatotypes. Methodologies for growth studies.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>11.1 </strong><span>Relevance of menarche, menopause and other bioevents to fertility. Fertility patterns and differentials.</span></p> 
<p><strong>11.2 Demographic theories-</strong><span> biological, social and cultural.</span></p> 
<p><strong>11.3 Biological and socio-ecological factors</strong><span> influencing fecundity, fertility, natality and mortality.</span></p> 
<ol start="12"> 
 <li><strong> Applications of Anthropology:</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Anthropology of sports,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Nutritional anthropology,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Anthropology in designing of defence and other equipments,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Forensic Anthropology,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Methods and principles of personal identification and reconstruction,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Applied human genetics&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Paternity diagnosis, genetic counseling and eugenics,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>DNA technology in diseases and medicine,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>serogenetics and cytogenetics in reproductive biology.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<h2><strong>UPSC Optional Syllabus for Anthropology- Paper-II</strong></h2> 
<p><strong>1.1 Evolution of the Indian Culture and Civilization</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Prehistoric (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Neolithic&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Chalcolithic).</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Protohistoric (Indus Civilization): Pre- Harappan, Harappan and post- Harappan cultures.Contributions of tribal cultures to Indian civilization.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.2 Palaeo</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>anthropological evidences from India with special reference to Siwaliks and Narmada basin (Ramapithecus, Sivapithecus and Narmada Man).</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>1.3 Ethno-archaeology in India:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>The concept of ethno-archaeology;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Survivals and Parallels among the hunting, foraging, fishing, pastoral and peasant communities including arts and crafts producing communities.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<ol start="2"> 
 <li><strong> Demographic profile of India&nbsp;</strong></li> 
</ol> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Ethnic and linguistic elements in the Indian population and their distribution.&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Indian population – factors influencing its structure and growth.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>3.1 The structure and nature of traditional Indian social system</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Varnashram,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Purushartha,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Karma,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Rina and Rebirth.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>3.2 Caste system in India</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>structure and characteristics,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Varna and caste,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Theories of origin of caste system,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Dominant caste,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Caste mobility,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Future of caste system,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Jajmani system,&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Tribe- caste continuum.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>3.3 Sacred Complex and Nature</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Man</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Spirit Complex.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>3.4 Impact of Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and Christianity on Indian society.</strong></p> 
<ol start="4"> 
 <li><strong> Emergence and growth of anthropology</strong><span> in India-Contributions of the 18th, 19th and early 20th Century scholar-administrators. Contributions of Indian anthropologists to tribal and caste studies.</span></li> 
</ol> 
<p><strong>5.1 Indian Village:</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Significance of village study in India;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Indian village as a social system;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Traditional and changing patterns of settlement and inter-caste relations;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Agrarian relations in Indian villages;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Impact of globalization on Indian villages.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>5.2 Linguistic and religious minorities and their social, political and economic status.</strong></p> 
<p><strong>5.3 Indigenous and exogenous processes of socio-cultural change in Indian society: </strong><span>Sanskritization, Westernization, Modernization;&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Inter-play of little and great traditions;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Panchayati raj and social change;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Media and social change.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>6.1 Tribal situation in India</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Bio-genetic variability, linguistic and socio-economic characteristics of tribal populations and their distribution.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>6.2 Problems of the tribal Communities&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>&nbsp;land alienation, poverty, indebtedness, low literacy, poor educational facilities, unemployment, underemployment, health and nutrition.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>6.3 Developmental projects and their impact on tribal displacement</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>problems of rehabilitation.&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Development of forest policy and tribals.&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Impact of urbanization and industrialization on tribal populations.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>7.1 Problems of exploitation and deprivation of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Constitutional safeguards for Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>7.2 Social change and contemporary tribal societies:&nbsp;</strong></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Impact of modern democratic institutions, development programmes and welfare measures on tribals and weaker sections.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>7.3 The concept of ethnicity;</strong><span>&nbsp;</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Ethnic conflicts and political developments;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Unrest among tribal communities;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Regionalism and demand for autonomy;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Pseudo-tribalism;&nbsp;</span></li> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>Social change among the tribes during colonial and post-Independent India.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>8.1 Impact of Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and other religions on tribal societies.</strong></p> 
<p><strong>8.2 Tribe and nation state</strong><span> - a comparative study of tribal communities in India and other countries.</span></p> 
<p><strong>9.1 History of administration of tribal areas,</strong><span> tribal policies, plans, programmes of tribal development and their implementation.</span></p> 
<ul> 
 <li style="font-weight: 400;"><span>The concept of PTGs (Primitive Tribal Groups), their distribution, special programmes for their development. Role of N.G.O.s in tribal development.</span></li> 
</ul> 
<p><strong>9.2 Role of anthropology in tribal and rural development.</strong></p> 
<p><strong>9.3 Contributions of anthropology to the understanding of regionalism, communalism, and ethnic and political movements.</strong></p> 

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